https://doi.org/10.59654/4gbrg727

Paradigm of school education: A reflection on chil-

dren's access to primary education in Angola

Paradigma de la Educación escolar: Una reflexión sobre el ac-

ceso de los niños a la educación primaria en Angola

Abstract

Universal access to education means that all individuals have equal educational opportunities, regardless of social

class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic origin, or physical or mental disability. This study reflects on the factors that affect

access to primary education in Angola, through a bibliographic, documentary, exploratory, and qualitative approach.

The results reveal a discrepancy between the values established in the Angolan Constitution and international edu-

cational treaties, and their effective implementation. It is noted that 22% of school-aged children do not attend

school. The main factors limiting access include socioeconomic conditions, geographic location, health and hygiene

problems, child labor, and early pregnancy, especially in rural areas. Further research is recommended to compare

findings and generate new scientific contributions aimed at improving educational access in the country.

Keywords: Access, Primary education, Angola, Factors.

Resumen

El acceso universal a la educación implica que todas las personas tengan igualdad de oportunidades educativas, sin

distinción de clase social, raza, género, sexualidad, origen étnico o discapacidad. Este estudio reflexiona sobre los fac-

tores que afectan el acceso a la educación primaria en Angola, mediante una investigación bibliográfica, documental,

exploratoria y con enfoque cualitativo. Los resultados muestran una discrepancia entre los valores establecidos en la

Constitución angoleña y en los tratados internacionales sobre educación, y su efectiva implementación. Se destaca

que el 22% de los niños en edad escolar no asisten a la escuela. Entre los principales factores que limitan el acceso se

encuentran las condiciones socioeconómicas, la ubicación geográfica, los problemas de salud e higiene, el trabajo in-

fantil y el embarazo precoz, especialmente en zonas rurales. Se recomienda realizar nuevas investigaciones para com-

parar resultados y generar aportes científicos que contribuyan a mejorar el acceso educativo en el país.

Palabras clave: Acceso, Educación primaria, Angola, Factores.

How to cite this article (APA): Miranda, G. M. A.. (2026). Paradigm of school education: A reflection on

children's access to primary education in Angola. Revista Digital de Investigación y Postgrado, 7(13), 129-134.

https://doi.org/10.59654/4gbrg727

Mário Adelino Miranda Guedes*

Assistant Researcher at the Center for Studies and Scientific Research of ISIA – International Poly-

technic Higher Institute of Angola, Luanda.

129

REDIP, Revista Digital de Investigación y Postgrado, E-ISSN: 2665-038X

Introduction

Education is the act of educating, instructing, and disciplining. Education refers to the means by which

the habits, customs, and values of a community are transferred from one generation to the next

(Adolfo, 2014).

According to Queiroz (2025), referencing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 26—co-

rroborated by Angolan legislation in Law No. 162/23, which establishes compulsory and free primary

education for all, regardless of age—every person may access education and literacy, thereby revoking

Laws No. 32/20 and 17/16. Universal access to education is the ability for all individuals to have equal

opportunities in education, regardless of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic origin, or

physical or mental disability. Such access broadens horizons, transforms lives, and enables the deve-

lopment of critical and moral thinking.

According to Nobre (2022), it is through knowledge that individuals drive their lives, guide their tra-

jectory, develop ethical values, and fully exercise their citizenship, understanding their rights and duties.

The main indicators of primary education include: the average number of students per class, the ave-

rage number of instructional hours per day, the age–grade distortion rate, the percentage of teachers

with higher education, the adequacy of teacher training, teacher regularity, teaching effort, and the

complexity of school management.

In Angola, the public school system—expected to serve as the main instrument for democratizing

education—faces serious structural, financial, and human resource limitations. Added to these cha-

llenges are insufficient infrastructure, a shortage of qualified teachers, and inadequate teaching re-

sources (Santana, 2025).

Thus, according to Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Basic Law of the Education and Teaching System (Law

17/16) of October 7, amended by Law 32/20 of August 12, education is a planned and systematized

process of teaching and learning aimed at preparing individuals holistically for the demands of indi-

vidual and collective life. It develops within human coexistence, with the purpose of addressing the

main challenges of society, particularly in the consolidation of peace and national unity, and the pro-

motion and protection of human rights, the environment, and the scientific, technological, social, and

cultural development of the country (Chikela, 2019).

According to Adolfo (2015), formal teaching in Angola began in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries,

long before the current territory was unified, during the presence of the Kingdom of Kongo. Within

the framework of Angola’s governmental policies for reconstruction and development, education as-

sumes crucial importance, serving as a strategic vector in combating poverty and illiteracy, promoting

health, and reducing social and gender inequalities.

Regarding access to education, private schooling in Angola has ceased to be a privilege and has be-

come a necessity due to the public system’s inability to absorb the student population within its current

8,137 public general education schools. Even low-income families are often forced to enroll their chil-

dren in private schools, where access is frequently hindered by parents’ inability to continue paying

tuition fees. School access inequalities between urban and rural areas are substantial. The net enro-

llment rate in primary education is 78% in urban areas and 59% in rural areas (Chilumbo, 2019).

According to Paxe (2019), Angola currently has 103,599 classrooms, of which 61% belong to public

Mário Adelino Miranda Guedes

Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Investigación y Postgrado

130

REDIP, Revista Digital de Investigación y Postgrado, E-ISSN: 2665-038X

Paradigma de la Educación escolar: Una reflexión sobre el acceso de los niños a la educación primaria

en Angola

schools, 33% to public–private partnership schools, and 6% to private schools, grouped into 13,238

institutions. Regarding access to education, 22% of school-age children are outside the education

system. Only 11% of children aged 3–5 have access to preschool education (Unicef, 2025).

This research seeks to conduct a bibliographic inquiry into access to primary education in Angola, a

country located in Sub-Saharan Africa, and to identify the factors contributing to the high exclusion

of children from the public education system, offering suggestions to help mitigate such effects.

Materials and Methods

The research is bibliographic, exploratory, and documentary, with a qualitative approach, seeking to

evaluate aspects related to access to primary education in Angola based on the analysis of documents

and data found in the aforementioned sources. Bibliographic research is conducted using available

records derived from previous studies, found in printed documents such as books, articles, theses,

decrees-laws, etc. (Siena et al., 2024).

The inclusion criteria for the works selected in this research were the contemporaneity of the study,

the relevance of the topic addressed, the significance of the problem, and the feasibility of obtaining

the content present in them. All publications, articles, and periodicals that did not meet the conditions

established in the inclusion criteria were excluded. All variables used in this study were qualitative. The

research results were analyzed qualitatively. The ethical limitations of this study were noted in the

cross-referencing of data found in the studies, particularly those of Angolan authors, as well as in the

assumptions of the various decrees-laws addressing the subject matter.

Results and Discussion

Education is a social phenomenon that, in principle, serves the function of socializing and integrating

generations. With regard to access to primary education, its objectives allow students to acquire basic

literacy and numeracy, as well as elementary knowledge in Science, Geography, History, Mathematics,

and other Social Sciences. The priority given to its provision is the subject of intense political and pe-

dagogical debates.

From Santana’s (2025) perspective, access to education is influenced by environmental, economic,

social, emotional, psychological, and family-related factors. In the Angolan context, the main problem

inherent to access to primary education is intrinsically linked to the shortage of school infrastructure,

despite the efforts made by the State to expand the school network and broaden access not only to

primary education but also to other subsystems. Added to this are socioeconomic and geographic

constraints, health and hygiene problems, child labor, and early pregnancy—an especially concerning

factor that contributes to school dropout, particularly in rural areas.

A comparative analysis of the Constitution of Angola and the recent Basic Law of the Education and

Teaching System (Law No. 17/16 of October 10), as cited by Chikela (2019), reveals a gap between the

ideal and everyday educational practice. That is, although there is legislation supported by programs

designed to promote and ensure broad and inalienable access to primary education, the daily reality

and the situation observed at the beginning of each school year contradict this well-intentioned effort

by the State.

It should also be noted that the armed conflict Angola experienced for nearly three decades triggered

a population exodus toward major cities, causing significant overcrowding. This placed an alarming

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Mário Adelino Miranda Guedes

Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Investigación y Postgrado

132

burden on the State regarding the educational supply, which, in many cases, has not been proportional

to this demographic phenomenon.

As can be observed, there is a certain overlap between universal factors and local realities, which may

be intrinsically tied to the socioeconomic and political circumstances of each region or geographical

area. However, David’s (2022) study on social inequality and the teaching–learning processes of early

childhood education highlights factors associated with school access, such as social, economic, racial,

and gender disparities; interactions between children and educators; material and infrastructural con-

ditions; teacher training and working conditions; and cooperation between school and family.

This reflection is supported by Chilumbo (2019), who, in his study on the Angolan educational system

and its adaptation to the cultural context of rural areas in Huambo, concluded that education is very

weak, as it lacks deeper reflections on the implementation of public policies related to social, economic,

and geographic factors. This situation has led families to prioritize food security, resulting in children

attending school appearing sad and malnourished, which demands a certain degree of pedagogical

flexibility to address the deficiencies identified in their daily reality.

The situation of children’s access to primary education in Angola, according to Chikela (2019), requires

urgent reforms to significantly reduce existing barriers. These include supportive family environments

where parents engage in their children’s education; adequate physical and mental health conditions;

the quality of education provided by schools; and accessible school infrastructure. Other important

factors include economic and social support, qualified teachers, and a positive school culture that

fosters learning.

These elements are corroborated by Luís (2021), who, in his study on access to education in Angola,

states that access to schooling continues to be a State priority regardless of circumstances. Therefore,

States must promote, through public policies, conditions that facilitate participation in and access to

public education, emphasizing that access to primary education is a subjective right of every citizen

and thus deserves and requires due respect.

According to the report from the National Institute of Statistics (2025), released on November 25 of

this year as part of the presentation of the results of the 2024 population and housing census, Angola

currently has five million school-aged children outside the education system, representing 22% of all

Angolan children in this age group. This highlights a major challenge not only for the Ministry of Edu-

cation but also for the need for a multidisciplinary approach to this phenomenon, given that it con-

cerns an inalienable fundamental right and an issue of citizenship.

Final considerations

Education is a social practice aimed at the development of the human being, their potential, skills,

and competencies. It can also be considered a duty of both the family and the State, inspired by the

principles of freedom and the ideals of human solidarity, with the purpose of ensuring the full deve-

lopment of the learner, preparing them for the exercise of citizenship, and equipping them for the

workforce. Therefore, education is not limited to the school environment.

The study highlights that there are many reasons why school-aged children and adolescents in Angola

are out of school. These include limited educational opportunities due to a lack of available places in

REDIP, Revista Digital de Investigación y Postgrado, E-ISSN: 2665-038X

Paradigma de la Educación escolar: Una reflexión sobre el acceso de los niños a la educación primaria

en Angola

schools, disinterest in attending school, illnesses that prevent regular attendance, violence of any kind,

socioeconomic issues, conflicts with the law, adolescent pregnancy, prejudice and discrimination, as

well as a shortage of qualified teachers.

This research demonstrates that universal access to education can be facilitated through public policy

measures, evaluation and diagnosis of the educational situation, ensuring enrollment for all children

and adolescents without any form of discrimination, providing structures that enable accessibility, and

investing in teacher training. Regarding children’s and adolescents’ access to primary education, it is

noteworthy that 22% of school-aged children in Angola are still out of the education system, and

48% of enrolled students do not complete primary education.

Based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that adopting strategies to promote greater

inclusion of children and adolescents in primary education—thereby reducing the gap between the

constitutional perspective that advocates for compulsory primary education and the current reality—

is increasingly urgent. Education is a right for all and aims at the full development of the human being

through the teaching–learning process.

Privacy: Not applicable.

Funding: This work has not received any type of funding.

Declaration on the use of artificial intelligence: The author of this article declares that no ar-

tificial intelligence was used.

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cação%202025.pdf

Article submission date: October 17, 2025

Article acceptance date: November 7, 2025

Date approved for layout: November 12, 2025

Publication date: January 10, 2026

Author notes

Mário Adelino Miranda Guedes

Instituto de Estudios Superiores de Investigación y Postgrado

134

* Mário Adelino Miranda Guedes holds a PhD in Educational Sciences from ACU – Absolute Christian University, and a

Master’s degree in Educational Sciences from Unixavier – Tiradentes. He earned his medical degree from Jean Piaget

University of Angola. He is a Professor of General Pathology at the Instituto Superior Politécnico Alvorecer da Juventude

(ISPAJ), Luanda, and an Assistant Researcher at the Center for Scientific Studies and Research of ISIA – Instituto Superior

Politécnico Internacional de Angola, Luanda. Email: guedesmario876@gmail.com